. Depending on how deep their water tables are located, hot springs can be classified into two groups:

1- Surface springs, which initially flow on the ground, but afterwards penetrate the groundwater gradient, dissolving various mineral substances and getting geothermally heated, until they eventually seep out of the soil from some outlet;

2- Deep aquifer springs, which have accumulated in permeable rock strata underground, and are being discharged under artesian pressure.

Hot springs of the first type have their water table at the depth of about 3,000 meters under ground, and of the second type of about 20,000 meter. Temperature depends on how deep water percolates into the earth crust and on how fast it emerges, and may even reach a boiling point. Depending on its chemical and physical characteristics, water of a geothermal spring can have peculiar color, odor, and taste. Sulfur compounds give water a blue or milkfish color; hydrogen sulfide gives water the smell of bad egg. Water with increased iron content has reddish or brownish color and sour taste. Other salts, e.g. sodium chloride, give water salty or bitter taste.

There are hot springs all over Iran , particularly along the slopes of the Alborz and Zagros mountains . Many villages, located beside thermal springs, have been named Ab-e Garm (“Hot Spring”), and have benefited greatly from such neighborhood.

Spring water is usually accumulated in natural basins, forming ponds and lakes. These are often enclosed by stone or brick fences, and may be roofed over. The Morad Spring in Vartun near Esfahan is an example of a roofed-over hot spring, dating back as far as the Safavid period. Often spa facilities, including covered pools, are created around hot springs , Aziz Garmab and Sadat Maleh near Ramsar being good examples.

In Persian dialects, hot springs are called garmu, garmab, ab garmak, or ab garmeh; in Kurdish, garmu or gerau; in Azerbaijani Turkish, isi-su. Sulfur springs are called ab-gugerdi (“sulfur”), ab-kebriti (“matchstick”), gandu, gandab, ab-gandu, ganu, or gande-cheshme (“stinking”). Salt mineral springs are called, ab-zaghi, cheshme-zaghi (zagh derives from the Persian for aluminum sulphate) or shurab in Persian, and zi-su (there is a spring with this name west of Maku) or shur-su (such as a spring in Varjuy village south of Maraghe) in Turkish. Some of the springs are called after their colors, e.g. Siah-cheshme (“black spring”) in Chaldoran, Ab-siah (“black water”) in Ramsar, Sari-su (“yellow water”) and qara-su (“black water”) in Mahalat. Some of the names may also reflect health benefits of water springs, such as darman-ab (“healing water”) southwest of Orumiyeh, two springs of Ab-andarman in Ab-andarman village east of Ray, Ab-shafa or Cheshme-safa near Ab-e garm village in Mahalat. Moreover, some of the names may even indicate particular healing qualities, e.g. Ab-e kachali (“for treating baldness”) in Vartun near Esfahan, Ab-e mafasel (“for treating rheumatism”) near Mahalat, Ab-e qolenj (“for treating colic pains”) in the mountains northwest of Semnan, or Ab-e zardaba (“for treating jaundice”) near Ardebil .

Therapeutic uses

Mineral water has been sought after for various health-related benefits since ancient times. It seems probable that those living around the hot springs have unveiled their healing properties from age-old experience. The first medical authority to have emphasized the therapeutic value of mineral water is believed to be Antilius, the 2^nd-century Greek doctor.

Medieval Islamic sources mention several hot springs and their benefits. Ibn Faqih speaks of hot springs around Hamedan (among them Arvand, Lundan, Darfin, Daranbahan, Ab-e Ast, Abdullah Abad, Ab-e Bazin, and Ab-e Samir) and their benefits for treating gout and excessive stomach gas. Abudolf (10^th century) mentions the Zeravand spring, whose water he finds useful for healing wounds, fractures, and abscesses. It seems that the water of this spring also produced salts that were used as admixture in welding gold, silver, copper, and brass. Hamdollah Mostowfi adds that the water of this spring also relieves pains from leper and ulcer. He also speaks of the Garmab hot spring in the vicinity of Damghan, which was believed to heal itching and colic, and the Fravaz hot spring in Khorasan, bathing in whose water healed malaria. In The History of Qom is mentioned a hot spring at Salmvar in the village of Khurha Abad near Farahan, whose water was renowned for healing skin diseases. Moqaddasi speaks of two water springs, famous in his time – Hamme in Tabriye in Syria and Yunes near the former Nineveh ; the former was famed for treating abscesses and itches, as well as general soothing effect, while the later was believed to heal skin discoloration. Tusi in Ajaeb al-Makhluqat refers to Ein al-Moqadase in Alexandria , Ein al-Marazi south of Ghaznin, and Ein al-Hamme beween Kharqan and Qazvin , and praises their benefits in healing tumors and blemishes, and slows down body disintegration from leper.

Bathing and mud-bathing in hot and mineral springs invigorate, relieve pain (particularly of cramps and sometimes of arthritis), control convulsions, heal skin deceases, and are helpful in muscular disorders. The Ab-andarman spring east of Ray and Shurabil near Ardebil are famous for these qualities. Pollack in his travel account from the Qajar period speaks of the large hot spring near Babol (at that time it was the most important spa in Mazanderan), yellow-greenish in color and oozing sulfur smell, which was believed to heal arthritis, itching, and other skin and muscular disorders.

Sanctity of hot springs

Since ancient times, water springs have been endowed with sacred powers, and some have even believed that these are the path of communication with the beyond. In ancient Iranian beliefs, the goddess Anahita was responsible for bringing fresh water to the earth, filling streams, rivers, and seas, and in her worship, running water was an essential element. Veneration of water is one of the basics of Iranian culture; keeping water springs pure is a righteous act, while polluting water is a sin. In Islamic culture, water is also the main purifier.

Some mineral and hot springs in Iran are considered more sacred than the others. The springs in the Yarmuq gorge in the vicinity of the ancient city of Ghadare (near the present Om-Qeis village) attract lots of pilgrims, who believe that bathing in these springs is virtuous. In the local dialect, these springs are called Ghader Hammat; the remains of an old bathhouse at the shore have survived to the present.

In Assyrian culture, hot springs were also considered sacred, and bathing in them was believed to purify body and soul from dirt and sin. (Curiously, quite contrary to these beliefs, there is a note from Ephraim Cyrus, the 4^th-century Assyrian saint, who resents bathing in hot spring as part of sacred rituals.)

In the entire Middle East and in Iran in particular, water springs were often attributed to the Prophet Solomon. The sulfur spring in Muab, the perennial spring in Taleqan, the bath built around a hot spring in Estakhr in Fars , the hot spring northwest of Takab near Takht-e Soleiman, the Zendan-e Soleiman spring, and one of the springs in Mahalat are all named after Solomon.

A number of springs in Iran are also named after Shiite Imams and other holy persons; Imam Ali and Imam Reza are especially favorite characters associated with water springs. The water springs named after these Imams are believed to share some of their sanctity and thus to have healing physical and spiritual effect. Cheshme-ye Ali northeast of Tehran , Cheshme-ye Ali in Astaneh village near Mashhad, Howz-e Imam Reza in Vartun near Esfahan are only a few names in the long list of places named after these infallible people. A hot spring in Fariman near Mashhad , known as Shahan Garmab, is believed to be one of the innumerable miracles of Imam Ali.

Temples and shrines have been built around water springs in Iran since the remotest antiquity; some of them have survived to this day. These springs usually bear the name of the person buried in the shrine, e.g. Seyed Ismail spring near Seyed Ismail shrine on the road from Rasht to Khorram Abad village near Tankabon, or Ya-Ali spring near Ya-Ali dome in Yali Gonbad village northwest of Qazvin (it seems that the shrine actually belonged to some holy warrior, whose name has been distorted in the local memory as Ya-Ali). Those suffering from intestine problems, indigestion, rheumatism, anemia, and skin deceases are advised bathing in these springs. A shrine of Imamzadeh “Hot Spring” exists near Arib in the vicinity of Khur.

In popular beliefs, some springs are also endowed with the power to fulfill wishes. West of Kerman flows a spring with several shrines on its side, known as Ab-e Morad (“Water of Desires”); these are venerated by both Muslims and Zoroastrians. The similarly-called spring also exists near Semnan and Vartun near Esfahan . Dengaz spring in Babagorgor village near Sanandaj is also believed to fulfill wishes; the water of this spring is collected in a pool, mostly revered by childless women, who bathe there hoping to conceive. On the first day of the month of Khordad (May-June), and also during the first five days of the month of Aban (October-November), village residents of Parija in Mazanderan gather in Azarusar district near Azaru spring on the south slope of Mt. Kharivan, to wash their hands and faces in a ritual ablution in the hope to receive physical and spiritual blessings. Locals also commemorate the memories of their dead by lighting torches around this spring on the special days of the year.

Bathhouses around hot springs

It seems only natural that from time immemorial, people used water available from hot springs in bathhouses. It was customary in Iran and the neighboring countries to build bathhouses beside hot springs or in the nearest settlements. In the past, such bathhouses were mainly used for healing purposes. The remains of a wattle-and-daub bathhouse, which seems to date from the pre-Islamic period, has survived beside the hot spring northwest of Semnan. Moqaddasi mentions that all public bathhouses in Tabarestan, and even baths in some private homes were fed by the water of the neighboring hot springs . Ibn Huqal reports the similar situation in Tiflis (modern Tbilisi ). Ibn Balkhi in Farsname speaks of the hot sulfur spring in Estakhr in Marvdasht with a bathhouse by its side. John Fryer, the English physicist traveling in Iran in 1677, mentions two bathhouses near Ganu hot spring in Bandar Abbas, one of which was built by the Germans and the other by an Indian merchant; both were used by the locals for medical benefits.

During the Safavid period, two bathhouses were built in Abgarm village in Larijan, which were known as Abbasi and were active until recently. Hundreds of private baths were built in this district during the modern period, all fed by the water of the local hot spring and believed to have healing powers. Many bathhouses from the Qajar period have survived near hot springs ; of these, Fathali Shah bath near Sarab and Abbas Mirza bath in Liqvan village near Tabriz can be mentioned. During the last century, numerous bathhouses have been created around hot springs throughout the country.

Miracles of hot springs

Some hot springs are believed to work miracles. Rarely of historical value, many old books swarm with reports about springs which can turn objects into stones or snakes. Qazvini in Ajaeb al-Makhluqat, Dameshqi in Nokhbat al-Dahr, and Abudolf in his Travels speak of hot springs in various districts of Azerbaijan , whose water could turn into stone. It seems that salt composite in these springs was so considerable that it deposited in solid form during a very short period of time. Minorsky in his comments on Abudolf’s Travels, writes that the marble quarried around Tabriz is deposited from the salts of the springs flowing into the Orumiyeh Lake .

Iron compounds in some springs grant their water the blood-red color, which have triggered a lot of horrible stories in this connection. Qazvini in Ajaeb al-Makhluqat mentions the spring in Bamiyan, which screams while it flows and whose water can burn. Talking about the same spring, Dameshqi claims that a spit or some poisonous matter was mixed with the water, and this was spouted from the furious, boiling spring. Tusi talks basically the same story about Abyaz spring in Armenia .

Hot springs and their qualities both in Iran and in other countries still lack comprehensive research. In desert regions, for example in the vicinity of Nayband village, there is an impressive number of mineral and hot springs , of which no scientific information is available. A number of springs have emerged east of Shiraz during the recent years, of which again we know but a little. There are many springs on the sites of the former volcanoes, and there is a strong possibility that even more thermal springs will flow out of the ground there. The evaluation of the available mineral and hot springs , their quality as well as scientific and economic potential is still to be carried out.

Larijan hot spring

Larijan hot spring is located 35°54'25/6'' N and 52°11'35'' E, about 60 kilometers northeast of Tehran and 26 kilometers northeast of Damavand. It originates in the stones of the Quaternary period (andesite and basalt). Its water is classified as hyperthermal of calcium sulfate type. According to Fournier temperature probes (1977 and 1979) based on quartz quantity and Mg-corrected Na-K-Ca geothermometers, the temperature of the water table is evaluated at between 68° and 99°. Considering the slight difference between these amounts and the surface temperature, the educated guess may be taken that the water table is located relatively close to the surface and that the speed of water is very fast, due to which factor there is little pollution of the spring water with the dissolved content. Hydrochemical characteristics of the water of this spring reveal that it may be essentially dependant on the process inside the outer crust of the Alborz mountains; for this reason, collecting hydrochemical data around this spring seems essential.

:Physicochemical characteristics of the water of Larijan hot spring are presented in the table 7

Figure. Quality characteristics of the water of Larijan hot spring in Piper diagram

Utilization of mineral springs

Spa resorts are maintained and promoted in many developed countries. They are popular both holiday-makers and medical tourists.

1- Tourism development around mineral springs introduces local culture to the tourists and provides extra income for the locals.

2- Spa resources are believed to have enduring medical effect. Hydrotherapy is an efficient way to treat digestive disorders while invigorating the circulation, encouraging blood flow, and lessening pain sensitivity. Cold baths are stimulating, and they cause superficial blood vessels to constrict, shunting the blood to internal organs. Hot water is relaxing, causing vasodilation, and removing wastes from body tissues. Alternating hot and cold water also improves elimination, decreases inflammation, and stimulates circulation.

Each mineral spring has a unique water type. Sodium sulfate and sodium bicarbonate water regulates acid content in digestive system and enhances muscle activity. Sodium chloride water restores vital forces and is also effective in treating gynecological disorders. Hot radioactive sodium sulfate water is good for respiratory system, cell fission, dilation of blood vessels, and also has antibacterial effect. It may be claimed that mineral water is natural medicine, widely prescribed for its therapeutic effects.   

Therapeutic use of different types of mineral water

Chloride water: This water type is used for external immersion (hydrotherapy/bathing), and is effective in relieving rheumatic pains, treating lymphatic and gynecological disorders, in treating swellings. Vapor, thermomoist and aerosol inhalations with this water are helpful in treating respiratory problems. Bathing in this water works as vasoactive (promotes vasodilation). Drinking of this water stimulates gastric glands, increases intestine elasticity, and may work as laxative.

Sulfur water: This water type improves metabolism and is efficient in treating rheumatism, respiratory, and skin problems.

Chloride sulfate water: This water type is relaxing, antiallergic, laxative, and bile stimulant.  

Sodium chloride water: Bathing in this water type restores vital forces and may also help in treating gynecological disorders.

Hydrotherapy and its stimulating effect

Water is perhaps the most popular, cheap, and effective way of restoring vital forces and confronting lethargy and fatigue. Hot shower after excessive physical exercise or toil is relaxing and stimulating. Hydrotherapy is commonly acknowledged as an efficient means to achieve muscular relaxation, and understanding of how hydrotherapy works may help increase its benevolent effect.

In the past, hydrotherapy was widely employed by many peoples, but hydrotherapy in its modern meaning is the invention of the English physicist Sir John Floyer.

Hydrotherapy and hydrothermal therapy are chiefly used to tone up the body, to stimulate digestion, circulation, and immune system, and to bring relief from pain.

Hydrotherapy is relatively cheap. When you submerge yourself in a bath, a pool, or a whirlpool, you experience a kind of weightlessness. Your body is relieved from the constant pull of gravity. Water also has a hydrostatic effect. It has a massage-like feeling as the water gently kneads your body. Water, in motion, stimulates touch receptors on the skin, boosting blood circulation and releasing tight muscles.

How hydrotherapy works

The recuperative and healing properties of hydrotherapy are based on its mechanical and/or thermal effects. It exploits the body’s reaction to hot and cold stimuli, to the protracted application of heat, to pressure exerted by the water and to the sensation it gives. The nerves carry impulses felt at the skin deeper into the body, where they are instrumental in stimulating the immune system, influencing the production of stress hormones, invigorating the circulation and digestion, encouraging blood flow, and lessening pain sensitivity.

1- Increasing body temperature

Depending on the temperature of hot water, body temperature is increased. Already water of 34-37° in the pool increases the temperature of a swimmer.

2- Stimulating muscle activity

By emerging into hot water, muscle activity and general metabolism is enhanced.

3- Dilating blood vessels

Blood vessels dilate in hot water, increasing blood flow and stimulating metabolism in the body. Good circulation also brings the benefit of good lymph drainage which helps to clear the body of toxins.

4- Improving circulation

Hot water baths improve circulation. Your blood flow takes oxygen and nourishment to all your cells and tissues. The hydrobath also helps to regulate your body’s temperature control by improving the efficiency of your perspiration glands.  

5- Stimulating heart activity

The increased blood circulation pumps more blood into the heart. By the Frank-Starling law of the heart, it means that the force of contractions will increase as the heart is filled with more blood.  

The abovementioned effects that hydrotherapy has on your body turn it into a powerful therapeutic tool. It is a natural treatment that helps you revitalize and de-stress, without producing the detrimental side effects of some of today’s modern drugs. The hydrobath works by releasing millions of large bubbles, which relaxes your muscular tension and helps to reduce swollen joints giving you increased mobility and more importantly lessening your pain. The hydrobath also releases very fine bubbles; this has a soothing tranquil effect on your body which helps relieve your stress and tension. Hydrotherapy can provide you with the vital key to breaking the stress cycle of everyday modern life. In today’s busy world you can be prone to stress-related illnesses which can cause a wide range of physical and psychological problems. For example, high blood pressure, headaches, digestive complaints, insomnia, depression, anxiety attacks, the list is endless. Unfortunately stress not only affects the mind but more importantly your immune system. The hydrobath releases the toxins from your body and leaves you with a healthy glowing complexion. The oxygen flow is increased by the effect of the millions of bubbles and this activity can also help reduce fluid retention and even have a dramatic effect on other ailments. In short, hydrotherapy offers an excellent way for you to regain and maintain a healthy and painless body.

Hydrotherapy and sport

The importance of recovery for any athlete cannot be over-emphasized. There is evidence suggesting that hydrotherapy can have a beneficial influence on athletic performance.

1- It is proven that cryotherapy (emerging in cold water) decreases skin, subcutaneous and muscle temperature, causing narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction). This narrowing has the beneficial effects of dulling and reducing the sensation of pain, limiting the amount of swelling, reducing muscle spasm and clearing metabolites from superficial to deep tissue.

2- Studies reveal that the perceived soreness of eccentrically trained muscles returns to baseline levels following cold whirlpool and contrast methods, making them more effective than warm hydromassage and passive recovery; it is recommended, however, that in severe cases, treatment should start with warming procedures.

3- Hydrotherapy can provide the treatment for post traumatic and post surgical conditions. Increased blood flow, caused by hydrotherapy, has the beneficial effects of increasing oxygen and antibody supply, while also reducing muscle spasm and clearing metabolites. It is recommended that a sore or injured part of a body be emerged into a water basin (preferably water pool); hot water increases tissue temperature, thus causing vasodilation and as a result producing relaxing effect.

4- Because hydrotherapy is proved to have a beneficial influence on subsequent athletic performance, it can be employed during the pre-event training, helping warm up muscles and prepare the athlete’s body for exercising.

5- Hydrotherapy also helps to cleanse the body, soothe any kind of skin trauma, and has an overall calm effect.

Cautions and contraindications

Although hydrotherapy does not have any side effects and is basically safe for anyone, some necessary precautions must nevertheless be taken:

1- Special attention must be paid to water temperature, particularly in persons with decreased responsivity.

2- Hydrotherapy is not recommended for those suffering from trombophlebitis, acute inflammations, large open wounds, respiratory problems, and hormonal disorders. If prescribed, should be applied with utmost care. Hot baths are strongly prohibited for patients suffering from coronary deficiency.

3- Hydrotherapy is prohibited during menstruation.

Shower hydrotherapy

Showering is perhaps the most popular way of hydrotherapy nowadays. You can shower with very hot, hot, warm, or cold water, and contrast showers with hot/cold water are also widely practiced. Water of 33.9 to 36.7° is considered hot, water of 26.7 to 33.9° is warm, and water higher than 37.2° is very hot.

Some useful tips on showering

For everyone, and sportsmen is particular, hot shower is the easiest and fastest way to beat fatigue. Several recommendations on how take shower in the most efficient way are as follows:

1- As everyone knows, showering helps relax muscles and burn lactic acid after workout. Performing easy exercises under hot shower stimulates these processes.

2- The stronger water pressure and the larger distance between the shower and the sportsman, the more effective the procedure, working also as a massager for the body.

3- Long cold showering is not recommended without ‪training to avoid cold. To start taking cold showers, one should start with short sessions.

4- Temperature is the primary variable of concern. Sportsmen should be discouraged from using too hot water, taking very long hot showers, and for getting into cold air immediately after taking hot showers.

5- Intense rubbing of the body with towel decreases the positive effect of showering as this procedure irritates nerve fiber under your skin.

6- Good rest and sleep are recommended after hydrotherapeutic procedures to increase their effect.

‪Unforgettable spa resort

Larijan is a scenic rural area at the foot of the snow-covered peak of Mt. Damavand . A two-hour drive from Tehran takes you along a winding road, branching off the main highway and passing through beautiful gorges, surrounded by snow-topped mountains and colorful pitched village houses. Lar valley, abundant in herbs and covered by a flower carpet throughout the warm season, is an unparalleled view and a constant source of admiration for tourists from all over the world. While driving along the road, Mt. Damavand sometimes disappears from sight, but its presence is strongly felt.

One of the villages in Larijan, the one with the famous mineral spring, is spotted by clouds of steam, rising from the water surface. Robust, rosy-cheeked locals are famous for their hospitality, unselfishness, simple lifestyle, and readiness to help. There is always someone standing by the road, expecting for visitors and ready to assist them in whatever they may need.

Unfortunately, many come here just to while away idle hours, and leave without making proper use of local spa facilities; they do not know what they miss. Blessed are those who cherish this heavenly gift and make good use of this treasure.

Damavand , the world’s best hot spring

Dr. Abdolhossein Naseri, medicinal tourism executive of the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization states: “Iran has an impressive number of mineral and thermal water springs, the importance of which is unfortunately underestimated”. Dr. Naseri reports the number of these springs exceeding 200 and adds: “In order to better assess the benefits of these springs, the medicinal tourism department of the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization sought help of international authorities.” In addition, he says: “A Japanese company has come to Iran to evaluate the resources of 20 water springs in 20 of Iran ’s provinces. Their research has revealed that the Damavand hot spring has the world’s best water for treating skin disorders, and ensures healthy glowing complexion.” This expert also reveals: “Having involved local authorities, we prepared the list of Iran ’s mineral and thermal springs, and are now studying their qualities in order to prepare the comprehensive database of these springs together with their medicinal value.” Dr. Naseri says: “Iran’s lavish natural resources together with available highly-trained personnel have determined the country’s potential as one of the world’s best spa centers”. He added: “Medicinal tourism constitutes seven percent of the world’s tourism, and lots of tourist travel to other countries in search of spa resorts”. He explains: “The

medicinal tourism department of the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization has been created in cooperation with the Iranian Ministry of Health. Together with this Ministry, we have agreed to participate in international exhibitions to present our medical facilities and the potential of our natural water resources”.

Larijan is part of Amol county, the southernmost region of Mazanderan province, located on the northern slopes of the Alborz mountains. Larijan is one of the bases along Mt. Damavand ’s climbing route. Larijan consists of two towns – Rine and Gazang – and two rural regions – Upper Larijan and Lower Larijan . According to the 2005 census, the population of Larijan is 8,721 people